CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURES

In this chapter, there are some discussions used as foundations to solve the statement of the problem. Those are the discussion about teaching writing in EFL classes, students’ problems in writing classes, the process of writing, the role of media, the visual material and the map.

A.	Teaching writing in EFL classes
Classroom activity is expected to be able to provide learners with opportunities to gain knowledge and develop attitudes and values related to the fields they concern . This means that is EFL class, the process of teaching and learning must include activities and process that encourage awareness of, and commitment to, the solutions of linguistic problems. In the context of education, it is also worth remembering that most of exams, whether they are testing foreign language abilities all skills, often rely on the students’ writing proficiency in order to measure their knowledge. 
Writing as one of the four language skills has important roles for language learners. There are two reasons why writing is crucial. First, writing is a way of knowing, of discovering what the writers know as she put it down not only in the form of word and phrases but of all the wonderful stuff in his or her mind the  only become clear as he or she engages in the process of writing. Second, writing is for discovery of learning, not just demonstration of teach. For writing, unlike speaking, provides the writer with a way not only to generate ideas before presenting them to an audience, but also to scrutinize the ideas and language the writer produces. 
Various rationales have been suggested for the relations between speaking and writing, according Murcia states that any two conflicting positions between speaking and writing: (1) writing is different from speech and (2) that writing is similar to speech. Similarly, according to Byrne states that very different activity from speaking and comparison between them should help us to understand some of the difficulties which are involved in writing, for reason: (1) speech takes place against the background of a situation at least some of the language when speaking relates to that situation. (2) And, the persons are addressing is normally present so that there is continuous interaction and feedback. As speaker and listeners, in fact, normally keep changing roles and ‘monitor’ each others performance.
In addition, Betty also mentions rhetorical situation, which has five elements in a writing class: (1) Occasion is the event, condition, or need that causes you to write, (2) purpose has two aspects: general and specific. The general purpose of writing may be primarily to inform, to persuade, to express or to entertain. The specific purpose involves responding to a certain need for writing. (3) Topic as the subject (4) the audience as the reader (5) the writer voice is the sound of the words on paper, and it influences the reaction of the reader. In learning to write better, you are honing a skill that will multiply your chances for success whenever and wherever you communicate.
Writing as a problem-solving activity that writing is a way of finding out what we know about topic. The major stages of the writing process are prewriting, drafting, revising and editing. Writers need consistent experience with all four major processes if they want to develop their abilities in writing. However, students’ still need guidance in finding topic for writing. In addition, the role of the teacher in the writing process may act as an assistant (helping the students’ along), a resource (being available when students’ need information and guidance), an evaluator (saying how well things are going so far), or an editor (helping to select and rearrange pieces of writing in or beyond the classroom).  It is essential for teachers to give a model in the writing process and teach strategies, which enable students’ to grow in writing skills. 
Teacher should give model the writing process at every stage and teach specific writing strategies to students’ through meaningful classroom activities . Teacher then give a model how to write. The session can end with an open sharing. Assessment is on going and authentic, and students’ to do self assessment. Students’ who are learning to write in English as second language an benefit from a process approach to writing, especially through the use of the teacher modeling and lesson in skills.
Modeling is an important part of teaching. Modeling helps the students to get a clear idea of what they are supposed to do. In this session the student can interact with not only the teacher but also the students. They can share ideas, ask question about what is being written, and offer examples and options. 
The teacher can choose some selecting materials good for teaching writing process. According to Richard there are  some features to be considered in choosing the materials of writing: (1) topics which are interesting, culturally appropriate to the students, and the content is relevant and engaging, (2) types of writing which refer to essays, letters or paragraph which are needed by the students, (3) methods of generating ideas which refer to brainstorming, free writing, listing, mapping and outlining, (4) rhetorical organization which refer to the information which help students’ to organize their writing in a form of letters, description, narration, exposition and argument, (5) collaboration which refer to the opportunity to collaborate whit others such us group working, (6) revision which refer to the opportunity for the students’ to revise their draft, and  (7) edition continued by proofreading to correct the grammatical errors which refers to the opportunities for the students’ to find and edit the grammatical errors.
From the above information, it is stated that types of writing is one consideration in selecting material. There are several types of writing suggested in the 2004 Competence Based Curriculum for SMP. They are descriptive, recount, narrative, exposition, procedure, report and anecdote. 
There are some stage of teaching writing can be divided into five stages, they are: (1) copying is the lowest stage or the first step in writing where students are trained to copy or write in correct spelling, capitalization, and punctuation, (2) reproduction or modification, students’ are asked to rewrite a piece of writing with modification, (3) recombination or transformation, the students’ are asked to change the forms of writing, (4) guided writing, students’ are asked to write based on a given plot or outline, (5) composition or free writing is the real writing where the students are freer to write. They can be asked to write an essay on a topic decided by the teacher and/or students’. 
According to James, Effective writing is to employ telling detail to communicate specific information and gain readers’ interest. Sentence can be modifying any part of all of its main clause or clause. The sentences may be modified by adjective, adverb, phrase or clause that describe or limit the words being modified. Beside that, the sentences also can combine with coordination that combining or joining of similar elements into pairs or series.
The writing task can do through three steps (1) sentences), (2) paragraph), and (3) essay. A paragraph is a unit of writing that consists of one or more sentences focusing on a single idea or topic. A well-written paragraph often has the following structure (1) Topic Sentence: This sentence outlines the main idea that will be presented in the paragraph (2) Support Details or Examples: This is the part of the paragraph that presents details, facts, examples, quotes and arguments that support the main idea (3) Conclusion Sentence: This sentence summarizes the main idea of the paragraph. It may also lead the reader to the topic of the next paragraph. 
A paragraph must have a topic and controlling idea, support and unity. Another element that a paragraph needs is coherence. A coherent paragraph contains sentences that a logically arranged and that flow smoothly. First, Logical arrangement refers to the order of your sentences, which varies depending of your purpose.  A paragraph can be incoherent even when the principle for ordering the ideas is logical. Sometimes, the students are writing, they remember something that they wanted to say earlier and include it as they write. Second. Smooth flow refers to how well one idea or sentence leads into another. The smooth flow can be achieved through sentence combining and through the use of certain expression, called transition, which provides the links between ideas.
Paragraph construction has various methods of arranging supporting sentences is enumeration, process, chronology, cause-effect, and comparison and contrast. It also that example, details, anecdotes and fact and statistic can be used with any of these methods. A good writer will frequently make use of all or a number of these methods to develop his topic.
A topic sentence severs to introduce the topic and controlling idea. Generally, because the topic sentences does introduces, it is good idea to place it at or near the beginning the paragraph. However, depending on the kinds of paragraph, the topic sentence may be placed near the middle or even at the end of the paragraph. Sometimes, neither the topic nor the controlling idea is explicit state in one sentence.  This means that a topic and controlling idea are not present. In this kind of paragraph, that a topic and controlling idea are implied. That is clearly suggested in the development of a paragraph.
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B.	Students problems in writing classes
In pedagogical concern, education in general requires approaches to teaching and learning method which are active and process-based are used to involve students in an investigation of issue and concern and formulation of solution. More ever, learning experience is directed towards involving the learners in the solution of problems, through changes in personal behavior, active participation and social action.
Due the complexity of writing, the students often have problems to start expressing their ideas in the form of writing. The difficulties of opinions and generalizations without the factual details and needed to support their idea. Alice stated that one of the biggest problems in student writing is that the students’ writers often fail to improve their point. Sometimes, they have an idea but do not know how to develop it. Sometimes, they know what they want to say about a certain topic but just cannot get it organized. Finally after all of this, the students do not support their points with concrete good details.
Beside the linguistic problems, the learners also face psychology problems. According to Wendy, the learners do not confident about the mechanics of writing activity. They have low motivation and reluctant to start writing because they are encouraged to write. They are required to write on their own without possibility of interaction or the benefit of the feedback. Motivation students do significance better then their peers and it seems reasonable to suggest that the motivation of the students is perhaps the single most important thing that they bring in the classroom. For teachers, it is essential to create favorable situations and activities which are exciting and stimulate students’ curiosity in the teaching and learning process. For instance, using a map can create exciting class and stimulate students mind to make the writing activity more favorable.

C.	Process of writing
In the writing activities, the final product is not so instant, and as a result the writer has a chance to plan and modify what will finally appear as the finished product. Before producing the final product, students need to pass through the writing process. The writing process is the stages a writer goes through in order to produce something in its final written form. It is suggested that the process has four elements, namely: prewriting, drafting, editing and final version 
1.	Pre-Writing (Planning)
Writing is the way of finding out what we know about a topic. However, students need the guidance in finding the topic for writing. Students generally write best when they are guided to find their own topics and write about they know.
According to Richard , Pre-writing is any activity in the classroom in the classroom that encourages students to write. It stimulates thoughts for getting started. Before starting to write, they try and decide what is they are going to write. The following activities provides the learning experiences for the students at the stage :( 1) Group Brainstorming where the group members spew out the ideas about the topic spontaneously, (2) Clustering where the students from word related to a stimulus supplied by the teacher, (3) circling the form words them linked by the lines to show discernable cluster, (4) doing a rapid free writing, in this activity the students freely and quickly write down single words and phrases about topic within a limited time of three or four minis, (5) asking by using WH – Questions, where the students generate who, why. What, where, when, how question about the topic, and (6) answering the first string of Wh-Question.
2.	Drafting
A draft refers to the first version of a piece of writing. In the drafting process, writers express their tentative ideas onto the paper. The ideas in the writers mind are organized in a general context. At the drafting stage, writers are encouraged to write without fear of making error. The writing or drafting stage include : previous of time composing, attention by the teacher to individual progress, some time for teacher writing, teaching of organizational types  and pattern of development through use of models, and opportunities for students to practice and experiment with writing

3.	Editing (reflecting and revising)
Editing within process writing is meaningful because students can see the connections between such an exercise and their own writing in that correction is not done for it is own sake but as part of the process of making communications as clear and ambiguous as possible to an audience.
Once writers have produced a draft, they then usually read through what they have written to see where it works and where it does not. As the writing process proceeds into editing, a number of drafts may be produced on the way to the final version. Reflecting and revising are often helped by other readers (for editor) who comment and make suggestions. It will help the writer make appropriate revision. Revising is not merely checking for language error but also improving global content and the organization of ideas. Therefore, the writers’ intent is to make the readers such as teacher, peers or pen friends understand. 
4.	Final version
At this stage, students are engaged in tidying up their texts as they prepare the final draft for evaluation by the teacher. The final draft is the finished product. Once writers have edited their draft, making the changes they consider to be necessary, they produce their final version. The final version may look different from the original plan and the first draft, because things have changed during the reflecting and revision process.

D.	The role of media
As a foreign language hat is not used in daily activity, English is considered difficult to be learnt. To reduce the difficulties in studying English, learners need to provide a strategy or approach to make the study of English easier and interesting. Therefore, according to SEAMEO state that the message provides by media is the stuff of growth for the personality, and it is builds attitudes, habits and knowledge. So, from the definition above it can be said that media is nature and substance f the message provide the experimental background from which we operate. This controls what we do with the body. The media therefore determine in large part the behavior of the individual.
Realizing that instructional media can help students learn more effectively, teachers can use media to facilitate learning or increase understanding of the materials this is in line with the statement by Andrew, that there are some contributions of media to the learning process. Students have great deal of expertise about the media, students media knowledge tends to be implicit and can be made far more explicit through active approach to the media, students interest in the media can be used stimulate development in all four language modes, and media education helps to make link between students everyday experience and their work in English and in their educational generally. 
Basically, according to Sadiman, media can be used (1) simplify the teaching and learning process, (2) reduce the use of mother tongue or the first language, (3) encourage students motivation and interest, (4) explain a new concept in order to make it easier, (5) provide the same perception, (6) improve the quality of the study, and (7) provide more interesting and interactive learning process.
The characteristic of this media are: (1) Text is read in visual manner; in other hand visual is excited based on the room. (2) Text and visual show one way communication and receptive. (3)Text and visual is shown in statically (4) In developing this media depend on the language principle and visual perception (5) It is oriented to the student, and (6)The information can be re arranged by the user
Media can be classified to three types: visual media, Audio media and audio visual media. Byrne states that is dividing Visual material into two main categories: (1) Pictorial this category includes single picture and picture sequences. Picture sequences may show either one main event or scenes with a considerable amount of detail, and perhaps a number of events taking place, as is commonly the case in a wall picture. (2) Plans, maps, diagrams included material such as graph and charts (i.e. they contain figures and perhaps a few items, such as headings, in words).
Instructional media encompass all the materials and physical means and instructor might use to implement instruction and facility student achievement of instructional objective. Suyanto state that media can be classified to three types: audio media, audio visual media, and visual media. 
AUDIO MEDIA 
Audio media is also called by listen media, usually it is used to listen understand the passage. The characteristic for this media is that it shows one way communication, for example radio, tape and cassette records. 
AUDIO-VISUAL MEDIA
Audio visual media is the function of two kinds of media. They are audio media and visual media. The audio visual media need mechanic electronic to show the message of audio visual message, for example TV, VCD, and film.
VISUAL MEDIA  
Visual media is also called by printing media. Visual media is a kind of media that can be seen or tough by the students. The main component for this media is verbal material text and visual material. For example, real object, pictures, photograph, map, miniatures, etc. 
The visual material elements are line, color, shape, texture and composition. The element can help student to easier to understand the message or information in the picture. Actually, these elements also more interest to stimulus the students to expressing their idea in writing task. The naturally of visual material provides for language practice than texts. The visual material content is determined to some extent the language which can be used. This is likely to be the case in the lexical area. Even the students can not tie to any set of items. In other hand, the students can to exploit the material in writing practice. 
Because using instructional media will helpful to achieve our explicit and/or implicit goals, it is useful to apply the basic step in the instructional development process to choose and apply the appropriate media. 
According to  Byrne states that it is essential, therefore, to do the following:(1) Identifying and define an appropriate writing task which relates to the theme of the visual material, (2) Identify the language which the learners will need the order to carry out the task, (3) Decide how to prepare the learners for the writing task.
From various function of media visual above, it can be concluded the visual media are really important in teaching and learning media. English teacher need to use visual media in achieving the teaching objective. However the uses of visual media need to be carefully made and planned. The teacher should follow some considerations in using visual media in order to avoid difficulties and mistake in using in their teaching activities.
After the teacher feels sure that the media visual have fulfilled the equipment above the teacher can use the media in class. However, it is also important that the teacher know that he/she can not use the some media too often, because it makes the students feel bored, So, the teacher has to have other kind of media in teaching since the students need to have variations in learning so that they feel interested and motivated in learning the lesson. It does not matter for the teacher to find and have other kinds of media.
From the above statements, the writer could conclude that visual material could motivate the students in learning, stimulate the students to express their idea, help the students to understand the meaning easily and make the class free from stress and enjoyable so the students could receive the material better.
From some description above so the writer concludes that advantages of using media: (1) By using media visual the information and materials or message become clean so that the process and the result of learning and teaching may be smooth, (2) Media visual can increase and motivate the students to learn and make interaction with other students and also with their environment, (3)  By using media visual the limitedness of place, time, sense can be solve, and (4) By using media visual the students can  get some experience about everything around them. As one of the suggested instructional media, visual material can help teachers very much in the teaching and learning process. Visual material clearly has great potential as an aid developing writing skills. 

E.	Maps
Map is picture of the world, a country, a familiar city, the area around the school and treasure maps. Picture that show daily lifestyle in various countries around the world, particularly ones that show the students do all over the world, not ones that focus on exotic differences. 
The map is a symbolic, conventionalized representation of reality. Maps are most frequently used to show geographic or spatial distribution relations, representing areas of lands, sea or sky. Among the types used in technical writing are contour, profiles, historical, linguistic, political or demographic.  Maps make use of color and shading, as well as conventionalized symbol, to depict details of information and to indicate relationships. The map should include a key to help explain the symbols and to enable the reader to read or interpret the maps satisfactory.
Principally, the map is data source about area and information. According to Wright that pictures of laces might include: home or broad, landscape, town scope, single building, and views. So, map also describes condition the world and relation with human life. It can help the students in teaching learning foreign language, especially for vocabulary and writing task in the classroom. Furthermore, the map has shape small because it can not for all data. So the maps divide into four items: (1) Politic maps, (2) physic maps, (3) Politic-physic map, and (4) special map. Basically, function of map is to serve the data’s places. 
According to Sadiman state that the map give some information’s about: (1) condition of place, main land, rivers, mountain, waters, climate, economic, and relation area with another, (2) places and distance in other area, (3) culture, society  and language, (4) economic, such as land, industry, and international trade Beside that, the advantages of map : (1) Students can understand unity of politic, island and country, (2) stimulate attitudes students to typography and human in the world, and (3) students can give abstract picture about distribution , and what anything in the world the real sense 
Especially, in teaching and learning English in Junior High School. The teacher can use map to help the students to understand some information above so the teacher to understand a lot of vocabulary to construct become a paragraph or essay. Without map the student can not to explore their idea bout their real country or their city. The following sections on reading and memory will discuss how these, mind mapping concepts can be applied to these mental processes. 
Map making for fantasy writers. The key of a map is a box of information that helps the reader fully understand the map (http://lesson-plans-). Here are some key elements you should include with map (1) a compass is a small drawing somewhere on the map that shows the four major directions. It should include one on your map. It helps orient the reader and is particularly helpful if you use directions in your writing. A detailed compass will show all four map directions of North, South, East, and West (2) a scale is a line drawn on the map that shows distances. (3) Writing Names of locations on your map. . The map itself can be made more visually appealing by adding parchment curls at the edges or medieval style borders around the edges.
According to Jolly, descriptions are no more than the picking out of a few salient features of a town, district, or park. Description place whether large (town, city, and country), or small (park, river, bank, garden, square, beach, forest) are distinctive in layout, and in the relation of one part to another. Understanding what maps are, their basic elements, and how to read them, will enable you to use maps effectively in your writing and analyses. Visual literacy refers to the ability to “read” or “write” images, such as maps. The basic elements of a map (1) Scale is the degree of reduction (2) Map projection is a method to show a three dimensional object in a two dimensional plane. (Think of flat, two dimensional map of the Earth.) There are a variety of methods to accomplish this task. Symbols are graphically coded variables that communicate geographic. Symbols use visual elements such as shape, orientation, hue, texture, size, value (light/dark), and numerousness to convey meanings. Symbols should be logical and unambiguous. The map’s legend explains what each visual symbol represents. Often, the legend also contains the scale. 
Maps are useful for accomplishing a variety of analytical tasks, from identifying and geographically contextualizing a specific location to visually representing layers of information to tell a story or support an argument. They are key elements of the place based analyses typical of history and anthropology, for example. These visual representations of data can help writers complement the sequential nature of text on a page, where symbols work in tandem with written words to convey the author’s message.
The ways Visual images communicate meaning. By definition, visual rhetoric includes specific concepts of design or aesthetic theory and describes how images reflect, communicate, and shape cultural meaning. Maps are tools that communicate information to a reader. More specifically, maps are visual.

F.	Previous Study
Some researchers have conducted studies in writing using some visual material: for instance used pictures and providing themes in writing achievement, used picture sequences to improve students’ ability in writing narrative text, used comic as teaching media to the students writing skill, used miniatures in the teaching English and used single picture and a series picture in writing ability achievement.  Generally, the finding showed that the students performed in teaching English was better when this visual media were used during the learning process.
Based on the study above, it can be concluded that a map as one of visual media has contribution relation to give beneficial effect to improving students writing ability. Therefore, the researcher applying a map as visual media in order to find out whether the strategy can solve the problems faced by students of SMPN 1 DURENAN - TRENGGALEK in writing or not.